CS代考 prolog python compiler Java computer architecture assembly assembler CSCI 2021: Introduction – cscodehelp代写
CSCI 2021: Introduction
Chris Updated:
Fri Sep 10 01:18:28 PM CDT 2021
1
CSCI 2021 – Logistics Reading
▶ Bryant/O’Hallaron: Ch 1
▶ C references: basic syntax, types, compilation
Goals
▶ Basic Model of Computation ▶ Begin discussion of C
▶ Course Mechanics
Ongoing
Due Tue 9/14 11:59pm
▶ Lab01: Setup, submit to Gradescope ▶ HW01: Basics, online Gradescope Quiz
2
“ ” Model: CPU, Memory, Screen, Program
Most computers have 4 basic, physical components1
1. A CPU which can execute instructions
2. CPU knows WHICH instruction to execute at all times 3. MEMORY where data is stored and can change
4. Some sort of Input/Output device like a SCREEN
The CPU is executes a set of instructions, usually called a program, which change MEMORY and the SCREEN
Example of a Running Computer Program
CPU: at instruction 10:
> 10: set #1024 to 1801
11: set #1028 to 220
12: sum #1024,#1028 into #1032
13: print #1024, “plus”, #1028
14: print “is”, #1032
MEMORY: |Addr|Value| |——-+——-| |#1032|-137| |#1028| 12| |#1024| 19|
SCREEN:
1Of course it’s a little more complex than this but the addage, “All models are wrong but some are useful.” applies here. This class is about asking “what is really happening?” and going deep down the resulting rabbit hole.
3
Sample Run Part 1
CPU: at instruction 10:
> 10: set #1024 to 1801
11: set #1028 to 220
12: sum #1024,#1028 into #1032
13: print #1024, “plus”, #1028
14: print “is”, #1032
CPU: at instruction 11:
10: set #1024 to 1801
> 11: set #1028 to 220
12: sum #1024,#1028 into #1032
13: print #1024, “plus”, #1028
14: print “is”, #1032
CPU: at instruction 12:
10: set #1024 to 1801
11: set #1028 to 220
> 12: sum #1024,#1028 into #1032
13: print #1024, “plus”, #1028
14: print “is”, #1032
MEMORY: SCREEN: |Addr|Value| |——-+——-|
| #1032 |-137|
| #1028 |12| | #1024 |19|
MEMORY:
| Addr | Value |
|——-+——-|
| #1032 | -137 |
| #1028 | 12 |
| #1024 | 1801 |
MEMORY:
| Addr | Value |
|——-+——-|
| #1032 | -137 |
| #1028 | 220 |
| #1024 | 1801 |
SCREEN:
SCREEN:
4
Sample Run Part 2
CPU: at instruction 13:
10: set #1024 to 1801
11: set #1028 to 220
12: sum #1024,#1028 into #1032
> 13: print #1024, “plus”, #1028
14: print “is”, #1032
CPU: at instruction 14:
10: set #1024 to 1801
11: set #1028 to 220
12: sum #1024,#1028 into #1032
13: print #1024, “plus”, #1028
> 14: print “is”, #1032
CPU: at instruction 15:
10: set #1024 to 1801
11: set #1028 to 220
12: sum #1024,#1028 into #1032
13: print #1024, “plus”, #1028
14: print “is”, #1032
> 15: ….
MEMORY: |Addr|Value| |——-+——-| | #1032 | 2021 | | #1028 | 220 | | #1024 | 1801 |
MEMORY:
| Addr | Value |
|——-+——-|
| #1032 | 2021 |
| #1028 | 220 |
| #1024 | 1801 |
MEMORY:
| Addr | Value |
|——-+——-|
| #1032 | 2021 |
| #1028 | 220 |
| #1024 | 1801 |
SCREEN:
SCREEN:
1801 plus 220
SCREEN:
1801 plus 220
is 2021
5
Observations: CPU and Program Instructions
▶ Program instructions are usually small, simple operations:
▶ Put something in a specific memory cell using its address
▶ Copy the contents of one cell to another
▶ Do arithmetic (add, subtract, multiply, divide) with numbers in
cells and specified constants like 5
▶ Print stuff to the screen
▶ The CPU keeps track of which instruction to execute next
▶ In many cases after executing it moves ahead by one
instruction but you all know jumping around is also possible
▶ This program is in pseudocode: not C or Java or Assembly…
▶ Pseudocode can have almost anything in it so long as a human reader understands the meaning
▶ Real machines require more precise languages to execute as they are (still) much dumber than humans
6
Observations: Screen and Memory
Screen versus Memory
▶ Nothing is on the screen until it is explicitly print-ed by the program
▶ Normally you don’t get to see memory while the program runs
▶ Good programmers can quickly form a mental picture of what memory looks like and draw it when needed
▶ You will draw memory diagrams in this class to develop such mental models
Memory Cells
▶ Memory cells have
Fixed ADDRESS Changeable CONTENTS
▶ Random Access Memory (RAM): the value in any memory cell can be retrieved FAST using its address
▶ My laptop has 16GB of memory = 4,294,967,296 (4 billion) integer boxes (!)
▶ Cell Address #’s never change: always cell #1024
▶ Cell Contents frequently change: set #1024 to 42
7
Variables: Named Memory Cells
▶ Dealing with raw memory addresses is tedious
▶ Any programming language worth its salt will have variables:
symbolic names associated with memory cells
▶ You pick variable names; compiler/interpreter automatically translates to memory cell/address
PROGRAM ADDRESSES ONLY
CPU: at instruction 50:
> 50: copy #1024 to #1032
51: copy #1028 to #1024
52: copy #1032 to #1028
53: print “first”,#1024
54: print “second”,#1028
PROGRAM WITH NAMED CELLS
CPU: at instruction 51:
> 50: copy x to temp
51: copy y to x
52: copy temp to y
53: print “first”,x
54: print “second”,y
MEMORY: |Addr|Value| |——-+——-| | #1032 |?| | #1028 |31| | #1024 |42|
MEMORY:
| Addr |Name|Value| |——-+——+——-| |#1032|temp| ?| |#1028|y | 31| |#1024|x | 42|
8
Correspondence of C Programs to Memory
▶ C programs require memory cell names to be declared with the type of data they will hold (a novel idea when C was invented).
▶ The equal sign (=) means
“store the result on the right in the cell named on the left”
▶ Creating a cell and giving it a value can be combined
// need a cell named x, holds an integer
// put 42 in cell x
// need a cell named y and put 31 in it
int x;
x = 42;
int y = 31;
inttmp=x+y; //cellnamedtmp,fillwithsumofxandy
Other Rules
▶ C/Java compilers read whole programs to figure out how many memory cells are needed based on declarations like int a; and int c=20;
▶ Lines that only declare a variable do nothing except indicate a cell is needed to the compiler
▶ In C, uninitialized variables may have arbitrary crud in them making them dangerous to use: we’ll find out why in this course
9
Exercise: First C Snippet
▶ Lines starting with // are comments, ignored
▶ printf(“%d %d
”,x,y) shows variable values on the screen
CPU: at line 50
> 50: int x;
51: x = 42;
52: int y = 31; 53://swapxandy(?) 54: x = y;
55: y = x;
56: printf(“%d %d
”,x,y);
MEMORY: |Addr|Name|Value| |——-+——+——-| |#1032|y |? | |#1028|x |? | |#1024| | |
SCREEN:
With your nearby Room colleagues:
1. Show what memory / screen look like after running the program
2. Correct the program if needed: make swapping work
I will chat with a couple folks about their answers which will earn them an Engagement Point.
10
Answer: First C Snippet
CPU: at line 54
50: int x;
51: x = 42;
52: int y = 31; 53://swapxandy(?)
> 54: x = y;
55: y = x;
56: printf(“%d %d
”,x,y);
CPU: at line 55
50: int x;
51: x = 42;
52: int y = 31; 53://swapxandy(?) 54: x = y;
> 55: y = x;
56: printf(“%d %d
”,x,y);
CPU: at line 57
50: int x;
51: x = 42;
52: int y = 31; 53://swapxandy(?) 54: x = y;
55: y = x;
56: printf(“%d %d
”,x,y); > 57: …
MEMORY: |Addr|Name|Value| |——-+——+——-|
SCREEN:
|#1032|y |#1028|x | #1024 |
| 31| | 42| | |
MEMORY: |Addr|Name|Value| |——-+——+——-|
SCREEN:
|#1032|y |#1028|x | #1024 |
| 31| | 31| | |
MEMORY: |Addr|Name|Value| |——-+——+——-|
SCREEN: 31 31
|#1032|x |#1028|y | #1024 |
| 31| | 31| | |
Clearly incorrect: how does one swap values properly? (fix swap_main_bad.c)
11
First Full C Program: swap_main.c
1 /* 2
3
4
5
6
7
8 */ 9
First C program which only has a main(). Demonstrates proper swapping of two int variables declared in main() using a third
temporary variable. Uses printf() (standard out). Compile run with:
> gcc swap_main.c > ./a.out
to print results to the screen
10 #include
12 int main(int argc, char *argv[]){
13 int x;
14 x = 42;
15 int y = 31;
16 int tmp = x;
17 x = y;
18 y = tmp;
19 printf(“%d %d
”,x,y);
20 return 0;
21 }
headers declare existence of functions printf in this case
ENTRY POINT: always start in main() declare a variable to hold an integer
//
//
//
//
// set its value to 42
// declare and set a variable
// declare and set to same value as x // put y’s value in x’s cell
// put tmp’s value in y’s cell
// print the values of x and y
// return from main(): 0 indicates success
▶ Swaps variables using tmp space (exotic alternatives exist) ▶ Executables always have a main() function: starting point ▶ Note inclusion of stdio.h header to declare printf()
exists, allusions to C’s (limited and clunky) library system
12
Exercise: Functions in C, swap_func.c
1 // C program which attempts to swap using a function.
2 //
3 // > gcc swap_func.c
4 // > ./a.out
5
6 #include
7 void swap(int a, int b);
8
9 int main(int argc, char *argv[]){ // ENTRY POINT: start executing in main()
10 intx=42;
11 inty=31;
12 swap(x, y);
13 printf(“%d %d
”,x,y);
14 return 0;
// invoke function to swap x/y (?)
// print the values of x and y
15 }
16
17 // Function to swap (?) contents of two memory cells
18 void swap(int a, int b){
19 int tmp = a;
20 a=b;
21 b=tmp;
22 return;
23 }
// arguments to swap
// use a temporary to save a //a<-b
//b<-tmp=a
Does swap() “work”? Discuss with neighbors and justify why the code works or why not
13
// declare existence printf()
// function exists, defined below main
Answers: The Function Call Stack and swap()
9: int main(...){
10: intx=42;
11: inty=31;
STACK: Caller main(), prior to swap() |FRAME |ADDR |SYM|VALUE| |---------+-------+-----+-------|
|main() |#2048|x | 42| stack frame
+-<12: swap(x, y);
| 13: printf("%d %d
",x,y); | line:12 | #2044 | y | 31 | for main()
| 14: return 0; |---------+-------+-----+-------|
V 15: }
| STACK: Callee swap() takes control
| 18: void swap(int a, int b){ | FRAME | ADDR | SYM | VALUE |
+->19: inttmp=a;
20: a=b;
21: b=tmp;
22: return;
23: }
|———+——-+—–+——-|
| main() | #2048 | x | 42 | main() frame
| line:12 | #2044 | y | 31 | now inactive
|———+——-+—–+——-|
|swap() |#2040|a | |line:19|#2036|b | | |#2032|tmp|
42 | new frame 31|forswap() ? | now active
▶ Caller function main() and Callee function swap()
▶ Caller pushes a stack frame onto the function call stack ▶ Frame has space for all Callee parameters/locals
▶ Caller tracks where it left off to resume later
▶ Caller copies values to Callee frame for parameters
▶ Callee begins executing at its first instruction
14
Answers: Function Call Stack: Returning from swap()
9: int main(…){
10: intx=42;
11: inty=31;
12: swap(x, y);
+->13: printf(“%d %d
”,x,y);
| 14: return 0;
| 15: }
|
^ 18:voidswap(inta,intb){
STACK: Callee swap() returning
|FRAME |ADDR |SYM|VALUE| |———+——-+—–+——-| |main() |#2048|x | 42| |line:12|#2044|y | 31| |———+——-+—–+——-| |swap() |#2040|a | 31|aboutto |line:22|#2036|b | 42|return | |#2032|tmp| 42|
STACK: Caller main() gets control back |FRAME |ADDR |SYM|VALUE| |———+——-+—–+——-| |main() |#2048|x | 42|now |line:13|#2044|y | 31|active |———+——-+—–+——-|
| 19:
| 20:
| 21:
+-<22: return;
23:}
inttmp=a; a=b; b=tmp;
▶ On finishing, Callee stack frame pops off, returns control back to Caller which resumes executing next instruction
▶ Callee may pass a return value to Caller but otherwise needs proper setup to alter the Caller stack frame.
▶ swap() does NOT swap the variables in main()
inactive
15
Motivation for C
Pure Abstraction
If this were Java, Python, many others, discussion would be over:
▶ Provide many safety and convenience features
▶ Insulate programmer from hardware for ease of use
C presents many CPU capabilities directly
▶ Very few safety features
▶ Little between programmer and
hardware
You just have to know C. Why? Because for all practical purposes, every computer in the world you’ll ever use is a von Neumann machine, and C is a lightweight, expressive syntax for the von Neumann machine’s capabilities. – , Tour de Babel
Python, JS Ruby, Shell
C++, D Assembly
VHDL
Bread Board
Prolog, Lisp ML,
C
Binary Opcodes
Wires Electrons
Bare Metal
Source
16
Machine / Architecture (Wikip)
Processing
▶ Wires/gates that accomplish fundamental ops
▶ +, -, *, AND, OR, move, copy, shift, etc.
▶ Ops act on contents of memory cells to change them
Control
▶ Memory address of next instruction to execute
▶ After executing, move ahead one unless instruction was to jump elsewhere
Memory
▶ Giant array of bits/bytes so everything is represented as 1’s and 0’s, including instructions
▶ Memory cells accessible by address number
Input/Output
▶ Allows humans to interpret what is happening
▶ Often special memory locations for screen and keyboard
Wait, these items seem kind of familiar... 17
Exercise: C allows direct use of memory cell addresses Where/how are these used in the code below?
&x memory address of variable x
int *a a stores a memory address (pointer to integer(s)) *a get/set the memory pointed to by a (dereference)
1 // swap_pointer.c: swaps values using a function with pointer arguments.
2
3 #include
4 void swap_ptr(int *a, int *b); // function exists, defined below main
5
6 int main(int argc, char *argv[]){ // ENTRY POINT: start executing in main()
7 intx=42;
8 inty=31;
9 swap_ptr(&x, &y);
10 printf(“%d %d
”,x,y);
11 return 0;
12 } 13
14 // Function to swap contents of two memory cells
15 void swap_ptr(int *a, int *b){
16 int tmp = *a;
17 *a=*b;
18 *b = tmp;
19 return;
20 }
// a/b are addresses of memory cells // go to address a, copy value int tmp //copyvalataddrinbtoaddrina // copy temp into address in b
// call swap() with addresses of x/y
// print the values of x and y
18
Swapping with Pointers/Addresses: Call Stack
9: int main(…){
10: intx=42;
11: inty=31;
+-<12: swap_ptr(&x, &y);
STACK: Caller main(), prior to swap() |FRAME |ADDR |NAME|VALUE| |---------+-------+------+-------| |main() |#2048|x | 42| |line:12|#2044|y | 31| |---------+-------+------+-------|
| 13:
| 14: return 0;
V 15: }
|
| 18: void swap_ptr(int *a,int *b){ | FRAME | ADDR | NAME | VALUE |
printf("%d %d
",x,y);
+->19: int tmp = *a; 20: *a=*b;
21: *b = tmp; 22: return;
23: }
|———+——-+——+——-| |main() |#2048|x | 42|<-+ | line:12 | #2044 | y | 31 |<-|+ |---------+-------+------+-------| || | swap_ptr| #2036 | a | #2048 |--+| | line:19 | #2028 | b | #2044 |---+ | |#2024|tmp | ?|
▶ Syntax &x reads “Address of cell associated with x” or just “Address of x”. Ampersand & is the address-of operator.
▶ Swap takes int *a: pointer to integer / memory address ▶ Values associated with a/b are the addresses of other cells
STACK: Callee swap() takes control
19
Swapping with Pointers/Addresses: Dereference/Use
9: int main(...){
10: intx=42;
11: inty=31;
12: swap_ptr(&x, &y);
13: printf("%d %d
",x,y);
14: return 0;
15: }
18: void swap_ptr(int *a,int *b){
19: inttmp=*a;//copyvalat
>20: *a=*b;
21: *b = tmp;
22: return;
23: }
LINE 19 executed: tmp gets 42
|FRAME |ADDR |NAME|VALUE| |———+——-+——+——-| |main() |#2048|x | 42|<-+ | line:12 | #2044 | y | 31 |<-|+ |---------+-------+------+-------| || | swap_ptr| #2036 | a | #2048 |--+| | line:20 | #2028 | b | #2044 |---+ | |#2024|tmp |?->42| #2048 to #2032
▶ Syntax *a reads “Dereference a to operate on the cell pointed to by a” or just “Deref a”
▶ Line 19 dereferences via * operator:
▶ Cell #2040 (a) contains address #2048,
▶ Copy contents of #2048 (42) into #2032 (tmp)
20
Aside: Star/Asterisk * has 3 uses in C
1. Multiply as in w = c*d;
2. Declare a pointer as in
int *x; // pointer to integer(s) int b=4;
x=&b; //pointxatb
int **r; // pointer to int pointer(s)
3. Dereference a pointer as in
int p = *x; // x must be an int pointer
// retrieve contents at address
Three different context sensitive meanings for the same symbol makes * hard on humans to parse, a BAD move by K&R.
int z = *x * *y + *(p+2); // standard, ‘unambiguous’ C
The duck is ready to eat. // English is more ambiguous
21
Swapping with Pointers/Addresses: Dereference/Assign
9: int main(…){
10: intx=42;
11: inty=31;
12: swap_ptr(&x, &y);
13: printf(“%d %d
”,x,y);
14: return 0;
15: }
LINE 20 executed: alters x using a |FRAME |ADDR |NAME|VALUE| |———+——-+——+——-|
| main() | #2048 | x |42->31 |<-+ | line:12 | #2044 | y | 31 |<-|+ |---------+-------+------+-------| || | swap_ptr| #2036 | a | #2048 |--+| | line:21 | #2028 | b | #2044 |---+
18: void swap_ptr(int *a,int *b){ | | #2024 | tmp | 42 |
19: int tmp = *a;
20: *a = *b; // copy val at #2044 (31) to #2048 (was 42)
>21: *b = tmp;
22: return;
23: }
▶ Dereference can be used to get values at an address
▶ Can be used on left-hand-side of assignment to set contents
at an address
▶ Line 20: dereference a to change contents at #2048
22
Swapping with Pointers/Addresses: Deref 2
9: int main(…){
10: int x = 42;
11: int y = 31;
12: swap_ptr(&x, &y);
13: printf(“%d %d
”,x,y);
14: return 0;
15: }
LINE 21 executed: alters y using b |FRAME |ADDR |NAME|VALUE| |———+——-+——+——-| |main() |#2048|x | 31|<-+ | line:12 | #2044 | y |31->42 |<-|+ |---------+-------+------+-------| || | swap_ptr| #2036 | a | #2048 |--+| | line:22 | #2028 | b | #2044 |---+
18: void swap_ptr(int *a,int *b){ | | #2024 | tmp | 42 |
19: int tmp = *a;
20: *a = *b;
21: *b = tmp; // copy val at #2032 (42) to #2044 (was 31)
>22: return;
23: }
▶ Can be used on left-hand-side of assignment to set contents at an address
▶ Line 21: dereference *b = … to change contents at #2044
▶ Use of variable name tmp retrieves contents of cell associated with tmp
23
Swapping with Pointers/Addresses: Returning
9: int main(…){
10: intx=42;
11: inty=31;
12: swap_ptr(&x, &y);
+->13: printf(“%d %d
”,x,y);
| 14: return 0;
| 15: }
|
LINE 22: prior to return
|FRAME |ADDR |NAME|VALUE| |———+——-+——+——-| |main() |#2048|x | 31|<-+ | line:12 | #2044 | y | 42 |<-|+ |---------+-------+------+-------| || | swap_ptr| #2036 | a | #2048 |--+| | line:22 | #2028 | b | #2044 |---+
| 18: void swap_ptr(int *a,int *b){ | | #2024 | tmp | 42 |
LINE 12 finished/return pops frame |FRAME |ADDR |NAME|VALUE| |---------+-------+------+-------| |main() |#2048|x | 31| |line:13|#2044|y | 42| |---------+-------+------+-------|
| 19:
| 20:
| 21:
+-<22: return;
23: }
int tmp = *a; *a=*b;
*b = tmp;
▶ swap_ptr() finished so frame pops off
▶ Variables x,y in main() have changed due to use of references to them.
24
Important Principle: Non-local Changes
▶ Pointers allow functions to change variables associated with other running functions
▶ Common beginner example: scanf() family which is used to read values from terminal or files
▶ Snippet from scanf_demo.c
1 int main(...){
2 int num = -1;
3 scanf("%d", &num); // addr
4 printf("%d
",num); // val
4 return 0; 5}
▶ See scanf_error.c : forgetting & yields great badness
scanf() called
|FRAME |ADDR |NAME|VALUE| |----------+-------+------+-------|
| main():3 | #2500 | num | -1 |<-+ |----------+-------+------+-------| | |scanf() |#2492|fmt |#400 | | | | #2484 | arg1 | #2500 |--+
scanf() changes contents of #2500 |FRAME |ADDR |NAME|VALUE| |----------+-------+------+-------|
| main():3 | #2500 | num | 5 |<-+ |----------+-------+------+-------| | |scanf() |#2492|fmt |#400 | | | | #2484 | arg1 | #2500 |--+
scanf() returns
|FRAME |ADDR |NAME|VALUE| |----------+-------+------+-------| |main():4|#2500|num |5 | |----------+-------+------+-------|
25
Uncle Ben Said it Best...
All of these apply to our context..
▶ Pointers allow any line of C programs to modify any of its data
▶ A BLESSING: fine control of memory → efficiency, machine’s true capability
▶ A CURSE: opens up many errors not possible in langs like Java/Python which restrict use of memory
1972 - invents a powerful gun that shoots both forward and backward simulta- neously. Not satisfied with the number of deaths and perma- nent maimings from that inven- tion he invents C and Unix.
– A Brief, Incomplete, and Mostly Wrong History of Pro- gramming Languages
26
Beneath the C
C is a “high-level” as it abstracts away from a real machine. It must be translated to lower levels to be executed.
Assembly Language
▶ Specific to each CPU architecture (Intel, etc)
▶ Still “human readable” but fairly directly translated to binary using Assemblers
INTEL x86-64 ASSEMBLY
cmpl $1, %ecx
jle .END
movl $2, %esi
movl %ecx,%eax
cqto
idivl %esi
cmpl $1,%edx
jne .EVEN
Binary Opcodes
▶ 1’s and 0’s, represent the digital signal of the machine
▶ Codes corresponds to instructions directly understood by processor
HEXADECIMAL/BINARY OPCODES
1124: 83 f9 01
1127: 7e 1e = 0111 1110 0001 1110 1129: be 02 000000
112e: 89 c8
1130: 48 99
1132: f7 fe
1134: 83 fa 01
1137: 75 07
Looks like fun, right? You bet it is! Assembly coding is 1 month away...
27
CSCI 2021: Course Goals
▶ Basic proficiency at C programming
▶ Knowledge of running programs in physical memory including
the stack, heap, global, and text areas of memory
▶ Understanding of the essential elements of assembly languages
▶ Knowledge of the correspondence between high-level program constructs.
▶ Ability to use a symbolic debugger
▶ Basic understanding of how data is encoded in binary
▶ Knowledge of computer memory systems
▶ Basic knowledge of computer architecture
28
A Word on Safety
Please wear your mask during lecture
▶ For your safety, my safety, the safety of the class, and the safety of all the old, young, and immuno- compromised loved ones that we see but do not want to hurt, mask up.
▶ Refrain from eating/drinking during lecture
▶ Keep your mask on the whole time
▶ If you feel sick, stay home, watch the videos, notify me if the illness is prolonged and we will make arrangements
29
